Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation are standard cancer therapies to remove or kill cancer cells. These therapies can successfully treat cancer in its early stages but are typically less effective at advanced stages or recurrence. The past few decades have led to a fourth therapy, cancer immunotherapy. Among the immunotherapy approaches for tumors is cancer vaccination. Cancer vaccines can stimulate immunity against tumors through tumor antigens. Ideal cancer vaccines stimulate both cellular and humoral immunity while overcoming tumor-immune suppression to stop tumor growth and eventually kill tumor cells. Cancer vaccines are different from conventional vaccines since their therapeutic goals involve triggering tumor antigen-specific cellular immune responses to destroy the tumor cells. Additionally, tumor antigens are endogenous and have limited immunogenicity, unlike conventional vaccinations that use antigens from exogenous infections.

Although the identification and characterization of several tumor antigens have led to the creation of numerous antigen-derived cancer vaccines, many vaccines lack clinical effectiveness because they are insufficiently immunogenic. Therefore, adjuvants are used in vaccination formulations to promote potent and durable immune responses. In this chapter, we summarize the current standard cancer treatment modalities, highlight the present state of cancer immunotherapy, and describe many platforms and optimization techniques for cancer vaccines.